Modern Western coins were introduced into China in the late Ming dynasty, at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries, and gradually penetrated into the commercial activities of the southeast coast and the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River.
Fig. 1 Various Foreign Coins with Chopmarks Introduced into China in the Qing dynasty
Merchants used to identify the authenticity and purity of foreign coins with chopmarks. The behavior was initially interpreted as a distrust of foreign things; however, afterward, counterfeit imitations flooded the market and inspection and chopping became a necessary testing method because there were a lot of mainly local counterfeiters.
Chopmarked coins are a distinctive thing in the history of Chinese currency. The chopmarks on coins differ in size and shape, including different Chinese characters, symbols, and patterns, and can sometimes cover the coin. These chopmarks had the purpose of acting as a guarantee, and were often a kind of "secret code" among merchants that only they knew.
What kind of information do chopmarks show?
In 2001, I discussed this question in several articles1 , which sparked widespread discussion and attention. English source texts were also translated into French and Spanish for publication. This article, based on previous articles, is a summary. I have added additional content.
A Shroff Guidebook of Foreign Money from the Qing Dynasty
Regarding accepting foreign coins as a form of currency, there was a process for Chinese to learn, understand and inherit the experience, and several textbooks compiled by locals have become a significant source of relevant knowledge.
The textbooks which are often mentioned include The Secrets of Silver (1826 edition), Identification of Real Foreign Coins (the first edition has an unknown author and date, the 1854 edition was written by Yen Ching and Zhou Weixin from Kuaiji, and the 1867 edition from Tsuimantong of Hangzhou Qinghefang), General Study of Silver (the first edition composed in 1885 by people from Quzhuangshan, Shanghai)2, The Study of NewlyAdded Silver (the date of the first publication and the author are unknown, it was reissued in 1876), as well as several other texts.
Fig. 2 The Secret of Silver (銀經發秘). [Published in the Yichou year of the Rule of the Tong-Yi Emperor 1865-66]
In addition to introducing the types, sources, texts, features, and pictures of foreign silver coins for beginners, the shroff guidebooks in the past were focused on the approaches on how to identify counterfeits and taught strategies to identify these coins as the rampant casting of counterfeits was widespread at that time.3 The shroff guidebook The Secrets of Silver [銀經發秘] could represent the for mer. It lists 45 physical or chemical methods to identify counterfeits, including [translating literally from the Chinese] 'slightly white' (weibai 微白), 'large white' (dabai 大白), 'low white' (dibai 低白), 'water money' (shuiqian 水錢), 'letter money' (xinqian 信錢), 'mud letter money' (nixinqian 泥信錢), 'high clip low' (gaojiadi 高夾低), 'clip lead' (jiaqian 夾鉛), 'clip copper' (jiatong 夾銅), 'clip ring tin' (jiaxiangxi 夾響錫), 'clip copper' (jiatongqian 夾銅鉛), 'sitting lead' (zuoqian 坐鉛), 'plug lead' (chaqian 插鉛), 'nail lead' (dingqian 釘鉛), 'thin-skin copper' (bopitong 薄皮銅), 'medium skin copper' (zhongpitong 中皮銅), 'thick skin copper' (houpitong 厚皮銅), 'thicker skin copper' (jiahoupitong 加厚皮銅), 'polished copper' (jingguangtong 精光銅), 'copper nail lead' (tongdingqian 銅釘鉛), copper inlaid with silver makeup' (tongxiangyinzhuang 銅鑲銀粧), 'copper inlaid with silver buttons' (xiangyinkoutong 鑲銀扣銅 ), copper inlaid with heart (baxintong 拔心銅), 'mirror inlaid copper' (jingxiangtong 鏡鑲銅), 'inlaid half-face' (xiangbanmian 鑲半面), 'large inlaid heart' (daxiangxin 大鑲 心), 'small inlaid heart' (xiaoxiangxin 小鑲心), 'copper covered with silver' (tongbianyin 銅遍銀), 'silver inlaid three-part copper' (yinxiangsanfenyitong 銀鑲三份一銅), 'nailed copper' (dintong 釘銅), 'nail grain' (dinli 釘粒), 'bilge' (changdi 艙底), 'silver surface' (yinmian 銀面), 'filed edge' (cuoban 挫邊), 'scorched water' (jiaoshui 焦水), 'soil cast' (tuzhu 土鑄), 'sand hook money' (shagouqian 沙勾錢), 'foreign bronze' (yangtong 洋銅), 'coat' (dayi 大衣), 'hook money' (gouqian 勾錢), 'large mouth' (shuokou 碩口), 'charcoal' (hantan 含炭), 'smoother surface' (huamian 滑面), 'sour white' (suanbai 酸白), 'scorpion' (keyong 胢臃). The latter, Identification of Real Foreign Coins [洋銀弁正] displays the nine most detailed strategies to identify foreign coins, including identifying purity, design, field, rim, sound, chopmark, size, thickness, and weight.
Identifying the foreign coins by sight and sound [the 'ring'] are the most common ways; however, counterfeiting tricks changed daily, constantly becoming more and more sophisticated, so in order to confirm whether the coin contained copper or lead destructive methods like using knives or axes were used on the coins or applying chopmarks become necessary ways to ensure the coin didn't contain copper or lead. Shroff guidebooks at that time viewed chopmarks as one of the approaches to recognize the foreign coins, which made future generations of collectors curious about the individual meanings of the words, symbols, patterns, etc. However, the secret chopmark belonged to the memory of the shroff and was not included in the shroff guidebooks.
Nonetheless, The Secret of Silver did not reveal the existence of chopmarks at that time. In fact, there were two different models of chopping foreign silver coins, one in Soochow and Fujian and the other in Guangdong. Behind the numerous chopmarks there was a regional law.
The Chopmark Patterns in Soochow, Fujian, and Guangdong
The Secrets of Silver states: "Dayi (大衣), also known as Dayin (大印), which is a real foreign coin. If it was like a new coin without text and design on it, it would be called white minute ['tiny'] chop (白微印) and is used in Soochow."
New currency without chopmarks in Soochow is called "Dayiyin" (大衣銀) (Carlos III and IV portrait 8 reales), which are similar to Guangyang (光洋) or Jingmian (鏡面) in other places, and is called "white micro chop" (白微印) locally.
The so-called "Dayi" (大衣) refers to Carolus III (1759-1788) and Carolus IV (1788-1808). These two 8 Reale coins (equal to a Chinese 7 mace and 2 candareens silver coin) were minted by the government of Colonial Mexico; "xiaoyiyin" (小衣銀) refers to the silver coins minted after Fernando VII's second accession to the throne (first ruling in 1808, and the second time in 1813-1833), which revised the sculpture and decreased the area of robe. Both Dayi and Xiaoyi were named from the clothing features of the figures on the coins by the locals.
The above types are called 'benyang' (本洋), also called 'Buddha silver' and 'Buddha head silver' by the Chinese. They were prevalent in the second half of the 18th century and early 19th century. They are also the main type of foreign silver coins in circulation in the period when the 1826 edition of The Secrets of Silver (銀經發秘), the shroff handbook, was published.
It also mentioned, "... The 'dayiyin' (大衣銀) which had been used in Soochow must have the small fine character chops made with nails on faces and edges because shroffs in Soochow used the characters or square ink seals as chopmarks, in order not to hurt the silver."4 (Fig. 3)
Fig. 3 Soochow Chopmark - Small, fine character chop made with nails so it won't hurt the silver
Dayiyin, which was not from the local silver business but spread to Soochow from other places, must be chopmarked. What was used is the small fine character chop made with nails or square ink seals to avoid damage.
It also said,"at that time, if you would like to exchange a small robe coin with a foreigner portrait for the micro chop, you need to add a premium and Guaitou (鬼頭, literally 'ghost head') to each coin. How much should be added was not fixed; mostly, 4 to 6 or 7 candareens. It depends on the value of the silver. For example, if there are more than ten characters on the coin's surface, it could be called baidayin (白大印), which is commonly used in Wuyi (武夷). Premiums ranging from 1% to 5% should be added to each coin depending on the current price…"
If you would like to exchange xiaoyiyin (小衣銀) (Fernando VII revised version 1813-33) to exchange for an unchopped 'dayi', you need to add 4 to 6 or 7 candareens of silver to each coin according to the current price. The coin with more than ten large chopmarks on the surface is called "Dabaiyin," (大白印 – 'big white chop') which was circulated around the Wuyi area of Fujian. When used in exchange, each coin must be supplemented with 1% to 5% of silver according to the current price.(Fig. 4)
Fig. 4 Fernando VII revised version (1813-33), the value in Soochow was lower than other 'Benyang' (本洋), or foreign coins
It also said, "...There is also a kind of coin called a 'qingdayiyin' (輕大衣銀 'light coat silver'), with several characters on it, approximately weighing about six mace and four or five cents. It is also called Chayin (茶印 'tea seal/chop') or Chihyin (紙印 'paper chop'). It is circulated in Wuyi, Fujian. Most businessmen who earn a living by making tea or paper must use this kind of silver."
There is the other dayiyin (大衣銀) which is a lightweight version, commonly used by businessmen for large transactions, such as tea and paper, in Fujian. Due to too many chopmarks, the weight became lighter. Each piece was originally about seven mace and two candareens, but became only six mace and four or five candareens.
Summarizing the relevant content of The Secret of Silver, it can be seen that there had been two chopmark 'models' of how foreign coins' silver was verified for a long time:
The Soochow model: The local silver coin industry mainly offered foreign money without chopmarks. Regarding foreign money introduced from other places, only small and thin chopmark or ink chops could be used to avoid damage.
The Fujian and Guangdong model: Taking Wuyi, Fujian as a typical representative, foreign money in circulation must be chopped with dayin (大印) – or many large chops, which usually caused damage and lowered the weight of the coin. (Fig. 5)
Fig. 5 Fujian and Guangdong Chopmarks — many large characters, destructive
Foreign money was introduced to Fujian and Guangdong first, and replaced local silver ingots as the medium of trade for commodities such as tea and opium, forming a special regional currency phenomenon5. In view of the thousands of big deals every day, although there were dozens of fake imitation methods, merchants had no time to check them one by one, so chopping them with big chops (da yin 大印) had become the most efficient but destructive detection method. In the Qing dynasty, Zhou Tenghu (周騰虎) said in The Study of Casting Silver Coins (鑄銀錢說)that "the provinces of Fujian and Guangxi will definitely use them badly"6.
As for Soochow area, except for the lack of external trade in the early days, silver ingots had not been completely replaced, and various silver ingots still occupied an important position in the local market.7 Foreign money was still mainly used for small transactions. The processing methods of these two types of silver were also different.
Foreign Silver and Long-term Development in Various Periods
There were two chopmark 'models', one in Soochow and the other in Fujian and Guangdong. There were also different foreign coins used in each period.8
Silver Cobs came to the southeast coast in large numbers in the early 17th century. In order to check the silver content, people started splitting and chiseling, but this was quickly replaced by chopping. Since cobs mainly circulated in Fujian (including Taiwan) and Guangdong, the chopmarks on silver cobs were still mainly with the large 'dayin’ (大印) type. Although small chopmarks are occasionally found, they were not applied at the same time, and usually appear mixed with large dayin ( 大 印 ) chops. Therefore, {I think} the silver cobs with small chopmarks were introduced from the southeastern coastal areas to the Jiangnan (江南) area where the Soochow chopmark model was used.
In the beginning of foreign money use in China, the main problem that Chinese businessmen faced was not whether the coins could be used directly as currency or not, but how to confirm the standard quality and the actual situation to solve the problem of converting to silver before discussing the value of the piece. A silver cob from my collection can be an example.
This 8 reales silver cob was cast in the period of Philip IV (1621-1665), and has been chopped with multiple chopmarks, one of which is composed of locally used 'Soochow numerals' that appeared many times. After interpretation, the mark is the two characters "six" and "eight". This chopmark means that this piece weighs about seven mace and two candareens, and may be used as six mace and eight candareens of silver. At that time, there might have been a consensus on the purity of silver cobs. On the other hand, one silver dollar is equivalent to six mace and eight candareens of silver. Until the Daoguang period of the Qing dynasty, they had been used in many areas on the southeast coast of China, including Fujian and Taiwan. As a result, the concept of six mace and eight candareens of silver may have started from the 17th or 18th century.
Fig. 6 Numeric mark of "Six" and "Eight" on a silver cob
The chopmark was not the result of the individual choice of a few transactions, but the result of a regional law or collective restriction. The chopmark had been successively applied to silver cross money (十字錢 cobs), horse sword (馬劍 – Dutch 'Riders’), ’lady with a barrel’ (凭桶 – Peruvian 8 reales), double column dollars (雙柱 pillar dollars), Buddhist dollars (佛銀 – portrait dollars), ’eagle dollars’ (鷹洋 – Mexican Cap and Rays 8 reales) and other foreign coins in each period. The author of The Secrets of Silver had witnessed the operation of the two chopmark models in Fujian and Guangdong and in Soochow, so the book describes in Soochow, "the side surface must be chopped with small fine character chops made with nails (蟻口細字印釘 – 'ant-mouth fine characters'), and in Wuyi, Fujian, "there are large chops - dayin (大印)- on the surface.'
In the process, the silver industry played a crucial role because it was the hub of foreign money supply and demand; however, it's hard to detect its existence because they were not the ones who made the coins.
Yet, from the foreign coins we have, it is still possible to find the footprints left by the shroffs from long ago. Besides the "six and eight' numbers on the cobs mentioned above, which were chopped by shroffs, a "corset or waist-shaped pattern' can be found on a 1 reale cob, the pattern imitating the shape of the "square trough' silver ingot (sycee) which circulated in and around the southeastern provinces of China in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties.9 It was chopped heavily, which shows it belongs to the Fujian-Guangdong style. There is also a 1789 Spanish Carlos IV silver dollar with a "gourd-shaped' chopmark, which belongs to the Soochow model with small fine character chop (蟻口細印 – ant-mouth fine chop). Both patterns represent the silver industry at that time.10 Also, most of the chopmarks may be made by shroffs. (Fig. 7)
Fig. 7 "Corset" and "Gourd" chopmarks representing the silver industry
The Result of the Conflict between the Two Models
The existence of two major chopmark models of FujianGuangdong and Soochow was undoubtedly an obstacle to the circulation of foreign money.
First, it caused the price of foreign coins in the market to be different; one depreciated vis-à-vis the other which was bid up.
In The Study of Casting Silver Coins, Zhou Tenghu (周騰虎) said, "The most important thing for businessmen and citizens doing business in Jiangsu and Zhejiang delightfully and conveniently in the market is credibility. If shops keep using the same type of coins and rarely change, it might cause fake castings with various names to manipulate the market. A one-dollar foreign silver coin was one-tael more expensive than the local silver of the same weight. When the foreign coins came out, some viewed it as treasure, and some regarded it as rubbish. Between exchanges, the silver had already been 20% off."11 Foreign coins, which were commonly used in Fujian and Guangdong, were often accepted at a depreciated value in Jiangsu and Zhejiang because of the heavy chopmarks. Compared with the local general silver dollars, the price had dropped by 20%.
The same foreign coins with different chopmark 'models' {i.e. the Soochow vs the Fujian-Guangdong model} are like two different currencies, and there is a price difference. Therefore, both sides would clearly state in advance about the existence of chopmarks on the silver used.
For instance, the attached picture is a draft from Fang Chunmao (方春茂) who remitted 200 yuan of Guangbenyang (光本洋) to Shanghai from Fenxi (磻溪), a tea township in Fujian (福建), in the seventh year of the Tongzhi (同治) period (1868). Since the remittance is related to two places, which belong to Fujian, Guangdong and Soochow chopping models, it is not clear enough to specify the currency type as "Benyang (本洋). Therefore, it is further specified as "Guangbenyang" (光本洋), which is used in the Soochow model, which means to trade with Benyang (本洋) without chopmarks, so that there will not be a disagreement over the price of the silver.
Although foreign silver coins used in Fujian and Guangdong had been discriminated against and belittled by markets beyond, its heavy chopping method also prevented many unscrupulous people from committing crimes. The picture below (Fig.8) shows a contemporary counterfeit 1810 Spanish Ferdinand VII 8 reales. In order to gain credibility with the public, the surface of the coin was deliberately chopped with multiple chopmarks, but these are as unnatural looking as its silver purity and portrait appearance. The chopmarks repeat the two 'ant-mouth fine' character chops made with nails" of "Da" (大) and "Ren" (人). From this, it is speculated that when all kinds of counterfeit coins arrived in Fujian and Guangdong, it was easy to find the differences under the heavy chop dayin (大印) hammered method; however, it's easy to fake coins in Jiangsu and Zhejiang.
This counterfeit is probably one of the fake foreign 'suban' (蘇板) coins described by Lin Zexu (林徐) during the Daoguang (道光) period. He said, "Recently, the public had carefully exchanged and inspected foreign silver. The coins like suban (蘇板) were totally different from other foreign coins in their purity. No merchants would accept these coins in trade."10 With pros and cons, because neither Jiangsu nor Zhejiang heavily chopped coins, foreign money maintained a high price but also became a target to attack, and made the area the epicenter of counterfeit foreign coins.
Fig. 8 A fake Benyang with Soochow style chopmarks used in the Jiangnan ( 江南 ) area
Note：
1 Please find more relevant content of chopmarked foreign silver coins on www.sycee-on-line.
2 Masui Tsuneo; Chinese Silver and Merchants. Kenbunshuppan. February, 1986.
3 .Lin Zexu (林則徐); Regulations by Lin Zexu (林文忠公政書) Manuscripts from Jiangsu Province, Volume 5: there is no foreign money in Soochow, and it is said that “the silver in the mainland was infused with patterned silver, imitated to cast foreign silver, and named as Suban (蘇板), wuchuang (吳莊), and xiban (錫板 – tin plate). However, the original purpose of falsification/imitation was to make a profit, and it must be mixed with copper and lead, and then a profit can be made...". According to the text, fake foreign silver coins were from local areas at that time.
4 The Secrets of Silver. 1866.
5 Reference: Stephen Tai. A Study on Square Troughs: To Explore the History of Silver Ingots (方鏪考－一種歷史銀錠的探索) (Ch. 3: Troughs of Guangdong, Ch. 5: Troughs of Fujian). Potosi Studio. November, 2020.
6 Zhou Tenghu (周騰虎); The Study of Casting Silver Coins (鑄銀錢說). The Sequel of Dynasty Compilation (皇朝經世文續編). Volume 85. 30 Things in Household Registration: Currency (戶政三十 • 錢幣上).
7 The manuscript of The Catalog of Yuanbao/Sycee from Various Roads (各路元寶目錄) This work catalogs sycee from Chuyuan Silver in Changchung (阊中市), Jiangsu (江蘇) was composed in the late Guangxu (光緒) period, and lists various ingots circulated in Jiangsu, and their weight, fineness, color, color coat, and pattern.
8 Regarding chopmarks on foreign silver coins from different periods, please refer to: Colin Gullberg, Chopmarked Coins ― A History. iAsure Group. 2014.
9 Reference: Stephen Tai. ibid. 10 Qu Yanbin ( 曲彥斌 ); Chinese Business Dictionary. Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House. 2001.
11 The Secrets of Silver. 1866. 12 Lin Zexu. ibid